How China has changed since the C.C.P (Chinese Communist Party) Essay

During this piece of coursework I shall look at how China has changed since the C.C.P (Chinese Communist Party) took power in 1949. I shall look at the differences and similarities between Mao and Dung’s social economic and political policies. In 1949 Mao won the civil war against the Guomintang and declared China communist. Many problems faced the C.C.P. the Guomintang had taken all of China’s gold reserves with them to Taiwan the civil war had left the country crippled with schools and factories destroyed and the nation had been divided up amongst warriors. Mao realised that one of his key aims must be to unite the country and utilise its vast population to boost economic productivity. Mao aimed to achieve this with several campaigns. The first of these was the agrarian reform. Mao took the land off the rich landlords and gave it to the peasants. He also introduced the speak bitterness campaigns these were meetings where peasants would denounce theie land owners. However in a trend that we see repeated on many occasions during the C.C.P time In power the people go too far and the meetings turn violent often ending with the landlords execution . Over 2 million landowners were estimated to have been killed at these meetings. However what Mao began to realise was that the peasants simply did not have the recourses necessary for independent ownership so the C.C.P decided to form Co-operatives these involved 15 to 20 peasants pooling there recourses and working together on the land so although the peasants still technically owned the land they had little say in what happened there. The land was been run on their behalf by the C.C.P. Mao’s plane also included boosting the production of steel coal and machinery he aimed to do this with the five year plan’s factories all over china would be set targets to achieve which they must achieve during each five year plan the idea was that all of china’s workforce would focus on one thing so in the first five year plan it was steel and the production of steel would increase. However these plans failed manly because workers were all paid an equal amount regardless of how much work they did so there was little incentive to work hard therefore many people decided to simply not bother. This was also not helped when at the end of the five year plan factory workers worried about possible punishments from the C.C.P for not reaching targets lied about overall production.This meant it took the C.C.P a long time to spot the problems. When they finally scrapped the plans Mao introduced the great leap forward the idea was to overtake Britain within ten years and America in 20. The great leap forward meant more moving around for peasants they were now formed into Communes. These were vast farms with thousands of families some times working on them food halls and nurseries and homes of happiness were set up to allow both parents to work without looking after the old the ill the young or cooking this allowed every body to work full time. Mao also introduced the backyard steel campaign in a attempt to increase the production of steel the idea was that people would make steel after work in small furnaces on each of there streets the plan was a disaster most of the steel made was impure and useless they had also torn up railway lines to melt down to make the steel meaning any of the steel that was useful was stuck there. Eventually the great leap forward hit a major snag the people once again had over exaggerated production this proved to be very costly on the farms. In an attempt to show the people how well the C.C.P were doing they gave out food like mad they were making plenty however that year China had some of the worst weather ever. Many crops were destroyed and twenty million people starved to death.This spelt the end for the great leap forward After Mao’s death Deng took power in China. Deng unlike Mao was a moderate communist and could see China’s problems caused by the great the great leap forward he realised the need for western ideas. This meant that the party were no longer really sure whether they were communist or not a quote to back this up would be â€Å"Not even the party sounds very convinced by communism any more. At the last party congress in 1997 members approved a written statement that achieving communism might take several tens of generations†. He allowed western companies to set up factories in china and allowed students go abroad to study People were also given incentives for working well such as bonuses. He also disbanded the communes and allowed peasant farmers to sell there extra produce independently on markets for a profit. He also introduced more consumer goods to allow the Chinese people to spend there extra money on. A quote to back this up would be â€Å"In particular they will need to satisfy the hopes of a powerful growing class of people in private business the exploiters†. Deng also introduced a ten year plan a longer term plan he had four modernisations he wanted to modernise 1. Agriculture 2. Industry 3. Defence 4. Science In industry everything would still belong to the state but factories would now be allowed to use profit to improve there factories. The source used from the economist is not very reliable it is a western magazine meaning it would not have had accesses to Chinese officials and as a western magazine it will be very one sided and look to slag the C.C.P off as much as possible. There were several differences between Mao and Dung Mao was more of a dreamer and wanted success quickly Dung however realised that things in china were in a relatively dire state and was more realistic and patient with his ideas. Deng realised he needed to introduce some western ideas. Mao rejected anything vaguely western as evil and counter revolutionary. However there were certain similarities. both planned for the future and introduced long term plans with Mao’s five year plan and Deng’s ten year plan. However I feel that this shows that Mao wanted success more quickly (5 years plan) and was more impatient and Deng was ambitious but more realistic about the time scale it would take for China to compete (ten year plan). Mao had some very strong political views as we see in many cases we see the C.C.P stirring the people up into a frenzy the people going to far and then being crushed. The C.C.P main aim was to stay in power there was no vote anybody who opposed them or spoke critically of them or were judged to be counter revolutionary were punished. In 1957 Mao realised the people were becoming frustrated so in attempt to let them let of steam he introduced the hundred flowers a campaign designed to let the people critics or as Mao said let a hundred flowers bloom. The campaign was a disaster Mao was taken aback by the huge amount of critics so the campaign was crushed and it was made illegal to critics the C.C.P. In 1963 Mao was beginning to lose power so in a attempt to regain it he formed a cult based around himself.He attempted to brain wash the children and form them into a private army for the future(the red guard) The cult also included Mao’s little red book quotes from chairman Mao. This all ultimately lead to the cultural revolution the red guard begin sweeping across China killing anybody non communist trashing anything capitalist. This went one for years but eventfully they went too far and Mao sent in the army to restore order once the red guard had served its purpose. Mao also planned to unite with the U.S.S.R the other communist nation. This was done with the treaty of friendship allegiance and mutual assistance however rift soon formed between China and Russia. Mao wanted the rest of the world to be communist and after the war in Korea and issue over border territories Russia and china fell out. Mao also feared attack by America so began strengthening his military and experimenting with nuclear weapons. Deng was not much different from Mao in many ways he used the people to his own advantage and then disposed of them when Deng was trying to gain power in china he used the democracy wall he told people to hang up posters showing their criticism of the C.C.P. Once in power he simply tore it down and made critics illegal again. However there was one unique event. During Tianemann square the people had whipped them selves up into a frenzy but to the same result a bloody ending. Deng also realised he would need to extended the arm of friendship to the west so began making allegiance with America and Britain these lead to the return of Hong Kong and Nixon’s visit in 1972. The U.N also finally recognised the C.C.P as China’s real government. The main link between the two leaders is the way they use the people to their own gain both whip the people up and then put them down once they have served their purposes The main difference between the men was on foreign policy Mao only joined with over communist countries Deng however realised that he needed to stabilize relations with the west. Mao believed that all people were equal including women so he changed the marriage laws and gave women equal rights as men, property of married couples was now shared. Mao also united the peasants in campaigns such as the speak bitterness urging them to get involved Mao also controlled all media so all was propaganda meaning the people only ever saw or heard good things about the C.C.P even old operas and films were changed to make the C.C.P look good. Deng was much more tolerant and allowed the old operas to be reintroduced as part of Chinese’s past also he allowed western entertainment films and books. Deng also reintroduced rank into the army but the key issue was the one child policy. Deng realised that the population was becoming so large that the country would starve to death in twenty years unless something was done so the one child policy was introduced – if you had more than one child you lost benefits, money, housing with all these things going to families with one child this lead to a huge increase in abortions and even babies (usually girls) being dumped on the street to die. There were rewards offered if you became sterilised,however this was difficult to monitor many children simple were not registered and in the country families needed to be large to work the farms. Babies lying dead in the street are not a uncommon sight â€Å"The body of a newborn baby lies dead in the gutter ignored by passers by as if she was a piece of rubbish† This tells us that this is something people are accustomed to not uncommon. However this source is not reliable as it is a western newspaper so having little access to china or officials wanting to make the communists sound worse than they are and also can’t sympathise for the killing of babies as it would lose readers. There is little similarity between their social policies – Mao is very cagey and worried about anything western where as Deng realises that the people want things to spend there money on. Deng also acknowledges Chinas past were as Mao tries to remove it. Deng also attempts to tackle the rising population and actually says that there is a problem, something Mao never did. Mao’s impact on China is absolutely immense. China still today is communist and despite some of his economic fallings they began a new era for China. Mao united China under one government and kept it that way and began turning a country nobody really cared about into one of the most powerful on earth. Deng continued what Mao begin and by finally embracing certain western ideas took China to a new level of power. Without the communist party and Mao and Deng it is difficult to see China being as powerful as it is today so yes they had a huge influence on China today.

Critique of Pure Reason Essay

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is the central figure in modern philosophy. He synthesized early modern rationalism and empiricism, set the terms for much of nineteenth and twentieth century philosophy, and continues to exercise a significant influence today in metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, aesthetics, and other fields. The fundamental idea of Kant’s â€Å"critical philosophy† — especially in his three Critiques: the Critique of Pure Reason (1781, 1787), the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and the Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790) — is human autonomy. He argues that the human understanding is the source of the general laws of nature that structure all our experience; and that human reason gives itself the moral law, which is our basis for belief in God, freedom, and immortality. Therefore, scientific knowledge, morality, and religious belief are mutually consistent and secure because they all rest on the same foundation of human autonomy, which is also the final end of nature according to the teleological worldview of reflecting judgment that Kant introduces to unify the theoretical and practical parts of his philosophical system. 1. Life and works Immanuel Kant was born April 22, 1724 in Konigsberg, near the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Today Konigsberg has been renamed Kaliningrad and is part of Russia. But during Kant’s lifetime Konigsberg was the capitol of East Prussia, and its dominant language was German. Though geographically remote from the rest of Prussia and other German cities, Konigsberg was then a major commercial center, an important military port, and a relatively cosmopolitan university town. [1] Kant was born into an artisan family of modest means. His father was a master harness maker, and his mother was the daughter of a harness maker, though she was better educated than most women of her social class. Kant’s family was never destitute, but his father’s trade was in decline during Kant’s youth and his parents at times had to rely on extended family for financial support. Kant’s parents were Pietist and he attended a Pietist school, the Collegium Fridericianum, from ages eight through fifteen. Pietism was an evangelical Lutheran movement that emphasized conversion, reliance on divine grace, the experience of religious emotions, and personal devotion involving regular Bible study, prayer, and introspection. Kant reacted strongly against the forced soul-searching to which he was subjected at the Collegium Fridericianum, in response to which he sought refuge in the Latin classics, which were central to the school’s curriculum. Later the mature Kant’s emphasis on reason and autonomy, rather than emotion and dependence on either authority or grace, may in part reflect his youthful reaction against Pietism. But although the young Kant loathed his Pietist schooling, he had deep respect and admiration for his parents, especially his mother, whose â€Å"genuine religiosity† he described as â€Å"not at all enthusiastic. † According to his biographer, Manfred Kuehn, Kant’s parents probably influenced him much less through their Pietism than through their artisan values of â€Å"hard work, honesty, cleanliness, and independence,† which they taught him by example. [2] Kant attended college at the University of Konigsberg, known as the Albertina, where his early interest in classics was quickly superseded by philosophy, which all first year students studied and which encompassed mathematics and physics as well as logic, metaphysics, ethics, and natural law. Kant’s philosophy professors exposed him to the approach of Christian Wolff (1679–1750), whose critical synthesis of the philosophy of G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) was then very influential in German universities. But Kant was also exposed to a range of German and British critics of Wolff, and there were strong doses of Aristotelianism and Pietism represented in the philosophy faculty as well. Kant’s favorite teacher was Martin Knutzen (1713–1751), a Pietist who was heavily influenced by both Wolff and the English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). Knutzen introduced Kant to the work of Isaac Newton (1642–1727), and his influence is visible in Kant’s first published work, Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces (1747), which was a critical attempt to mediate a dispute in natural philosophy between Leibnizians and Newtonians over the proper measurement of force. After college Kant spent six years as a private tutor to young children outside Konigsberg. By this time both of his parents had died and Kant’s finances were not yet secure enough for him to pursue an academic career. He finally returned to Konigsberg in 1754 and began teaching at the Albertina the following year. For the next four decades Kant taught philosophy there, until his retirement from teaching in 1796 at the age of seventy-two. Kant had a burst of publishing activity in the years after he returned from working as a private tutor. In 1754 and 1755 he published three scientific works — one of which, Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755), was a major book in which, among other things, he developed what later became known as the nebular hypothesis about the formation of the solar system. Unfortunately, the printer went bankrupt and the book had little immediate impact. To secure qualifications for teaching at the university, Kant also wrote two Latin dissertations: the first, entitled Concise Outline of Some Reflections on Fire (1755), earned him the Magister degree; and the second, New Elucidation of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition (1755), entitled him to teach as an unsalaried lecturer. The following year he published another Latin work, The Employment in Natural Philosophy of Metaphysics Combined with Geometry, of Which Sample I Contains the Physical Monadology (1756), in hopes of succeeding Knutzen as associate professor of logic and metaphysics, though Kant failed to secure this position. Both the New Elucidation, which was Kant’s first work concerned mainly with metaphysics, and the Physical Monadology further develop the position on the interaction of finite substances that he first outlined in Living Forces. Both works depart from Leibniz-Wolffian views, though not radically. The New Elucidation in particular shows the influence of Christian August Crusius (1715–1775), a German critic of Wolff. [3] As an unsalaried lecturer at the Albertina Kant was paid directly by the students who attended his lectures, so he needed to teach an enormous amount and to attract many students in order to earn a living. Kant held this position from 1755 to 1770, during which period he would lecture an average of twenty hours per week on logic, metaphysics, and ethics, as well as mathematics, physics, and physical geography. In his lectures Kant used textbooks by Wolffian authors such as Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–1762) and Georg Friedrich Meier (1718–1777), but he followed them loosely and used them to structure his own reflections, which drew on a wide range of ideas of contemporary interest. These ideas often stemmed from British sentimentalist philosophers such as David Hume (1711–1776) and Francis Hutcheson (1694–1747), some of whose texts were translated into German in the mid-1750’s; and from the Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), who published a flurry of works in the early 1760’s. From early in his career Kant was a popular and successful lecturer. He also quickly developed a local reputation as a promising young intellectual and cut a dashing figure in Konigsberg society. After several years of relative quiet, Kant unleashed another burst of publications in 1762–1764, including five philosophical works. The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures (1762) rehearses criticisms of Aristotelian logic that were developed by other German philosophers. The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God (1762–3) is a major book in which Kant drew on his earlier work in Universal History and New Elucidation to develop an original argument for God’s existence as a condition of the internal possibility of all things, while criticizing other arguments for God’s existence. The book attracted several positive and some negative reviews. In 1762 Kant also submitted an essay entitled Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality to a prize competition by the Prussian Royal Academy, though Kant’s submission took second prize to Moses Mendelssohn’s winning essay (and was published with it in 1764). Kant’s Prize Essay, as it is known, departs more significantly from Leibniz-Wolffian views than his earlier work and also contains his first extended discussion of moral philosophy in print. The Prize Essay draws on British sources to criticize German rationalism in two respects: first, drawing on Newton, Kant distinguishes between the methods of mathematics and philosophy; and second, drawing on Hutcheson, he claims that â€Å"an unanalysable feeling of the good† supplies the material content of our moral obligations, which cannot be demonstrated in a purely intellectual way from the formal principle of perfection alone (2:299). [4] These themes reappear in the Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy (1763), whose main thesis, however, is that the real opposition of conflicting forces, as in causal relations, is not reducible to the logical relation of contradiction, as Leibnizians held. In Negative Magnitudes Kant also argues that the morality of an action is a function of the internal forces that motivate one to act, rather than of the external (physical) actions or their consequences. Finally, Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and the Sublime (1764) deals mainly with alleged differences in the tastes of men and women and of people from different cultures. After it was published, Kant filled his own interleaved copy of this book with (often unrelated) handwritten remarks, many of which reflect the deep influence of Rousseau on his thinking about moral philosophy in the mid-1760’s. These works helped to secure Kant a broader reputation in Germany, but for the most part they were not strikingly original. Like other German philosophers at the time, Kant’s early works are generally concerned with using insights from British empiricist authors to reform or broaden the German rationalist tradition without radically undermining its foundations. While some of his early works tend to emphasize rationalist ideas, others have a more empiricist emphasis. During this time Kant was striving to work out an independent position, but before the 1770’s his views remained fluid. In 1766 Kant published his first work concerned with the possibility of metaphysics, which later became a central topic of his mature philosophy. Dreams of a Spirit-Seer Elucidated by Dreams of Metaphysics, which he wrote soon after publishing a short Essay on Maladies of the Mind (1764), was occasioned by Kant’s fascination with the Swedish visionary Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), who claimed to have insight into a spirit world that enabled him to make a series of apparently miraculous predictions. In this curious work Kant satirically compares Swedenborg’s spirit-visions to the belief of rationalist metaphysicians in an immaterial soul that survives death, and he concludes that philosophical knowledge of either is impossible because human reason is limited to experience. The skeptical tone of Dreams is tempered, however, by Kant’s suggestion that â€Å"moral faith† nevertheless supports belief in an immaterial and immortal soul, even if it is not possible to attain metaphysical knowledge in this domain (2:373). In 1770, at the age of forty-six, Kant was appointed to the chair in logic and metaphysics at the Albertina, after teaching for fifteen years as an unsalaried lecturer and working since 1766 as a sublibrarian to supplement his income. Kant was turned down for the same position in 1758. But later, as his reputation grew, he declined chairs in philosophy at Erlangen (1769) and Jena (1770) in hopes of obtaining one in Konigsberg. After Kant was finally promoted, he gradually extended his repertoire of lectures to include anthropology (Kant’s was the first such course in Germany and became very popular), rational theology, pedagogy, natural right, and even mineralogy and military fortifications. In order to inaugurate his new position, Kant also wrote one more Latin dissertation: Concerning the Form and Principles of the Sensible and Intelligible World (1770), which is known as the Inaugural Dissertation. The Inaugural Dissertation departs more radically from both Wolffian rationalism and British sentimentalism than Kant’s earlier work. Inspired by Crusius and the Swiss natural philosopher Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728–1777), Kant distinguishes between two fundamental powers of cognition, sensibility and understanding (intelligence), where the Leibniz-Wolffians regarded understanding (intellect) as the only fundamental power. Kant therefore rejects the rationalist view that sensibility is only a confused species of intellectual cognition, and he replaces this with his own view that sensibility is distinct from understanding and brings to perception its own subjective forms of space and time — a view that developed out of Kant’s earlier criticism of Leibniz’s relational view of space in Concerning the Ultimate Ground of the Differentiation of Directions in Space (1768). Moreover, as the title of the Inaugural Dissertation indicates, Kant argues that sensibility and understanding are directed at two different worlds: sensibility gives us access to the sensible world, while understanding enables us to grasp a distinct intelligible world. These two worlds are related in that what the understanding grasps in the intelligible world is the â€Å"paradigm† of â€Å"NOUMENAL PERFECTION,† which is â€Å"a common measure for all other things in so far as they are realities. † Considered theoretically, this intelligible paradigm of perfection is God; considered practically, it is â€Å"MORAL PERFECTION† (2:396). The Inaugural Dissertation thus develops a form of Platonism; and it rejects the view of British sentimentalists that moral judgments are based on feelings of pleasure or pain, since Kant now holds that moral judgments are based on pure understanding alone. After 1770 Kant never surrendered the views that sensibility and understanding are distinct powers of cognition, that space and time are subjective forms of human sensibility, and that moral judgments are based on pure understanding (or reason) alone. But his embrace of Platonism in the Inaugural Dissertation was short-lived. He soon denied that our understanding is capable of insight into an intelligible world, which cleared the path toward his mature position in the Critique of Pure Reason (1781), according to which the understanding (like sensibility) supplies forms that structure our experience of the sensible world, to which human knowledge is limited, while the intelligible (or noumenal) world is strictly unknowable to us. Kant spent a decade working on the Critique of Pure Reason and published nothing else of significance between 1770 and 1781. But its publication marked the beginning of another burst of activity that produced Kant’s most important and enduring works. Because early reviews of the Critique of Pure Reason were few and (in Kant’s judgment) uncomprehending, he tried to clarify its main points in the much shorter Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics That Will Be Able to Come Forward as a Science (1783). Among the major books that rapidly followed are the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), Kant’s main work on the fundamental principle of morality; the Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786), his main work on natural philosophy in what scholars call his critical period (1781–1798); the second and substantially revised edition of the Critique of Pure Reason (1787); the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), a fuller discussion of topics in moral philosophy that builds on (and in some ways revises) the Groundwork; and the Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), which deals with aesthetics and teleology. Kant also published a number of important essays in this period, including Idea for a Universal History With a Cosmopolitan Aim (1784) and Conjectural Beginning of Human History (1786), his main contributions to the philosophy of history; An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment? (1784), which broaches some of the key ideas of his later political essays; and What Does it Mean to Orient Oneself in Thinking? (1786), Kant’s intervention in the pantheism controversy that raged in German intellectual circles after F. H. Jacobi (1743–1819) accused the recently deceased G. E. Lessing (1729–1781) of Spinozism. With these works Kant secured international fame and came to dominate German philosophy in the late 1780’s. But in 1790 he announced that the Critique of the Power of Judgment brought his critical enterprise to an end (5:170). By then K. L. Reinhold (1758–1823), whose Letters on the Kantian Philosophy (1786) popularized Kant’s moral and religious ideas, had been installed (in 1787) in a chair devoted to Kantian philosophy at Jena, which was more centrally located than Konigsberg and rapidly developing into the focal point of the next phase in German intellectual history. Reinhold soon began to criticize and move away from Kant’s views. In 1794 his chair at Jena passed to J. G. Fichte, who had visited the master in Konigsberg and whose first book, Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (1792), was published anonymously and initially mistaken for a work by Kant himself. This catapulted Fichte to fame, but he too soon moved away from Kant and developed an original position quite at odds with Kant’s, which Kant finally repudiated publicly in 1799 (12:370–371). Yet while German philosophy moved on to assess and respond to Kant’s legacy, Kant himself continued publishing important works in the 1790’s. Among these are Religion Within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (1793), which drew a censure from the Prussian King when Kant published the book after its second essay was rejected by the censor; The Conflict of the Faculties (1798), a collection of essays inspired by Kant’s troubles with the censor and dealing with the relationship between the philosophical and theological faculties of the university; On the Common Saying: That May be Correct in Theory, But it is of No Use in Practice (1793), Toward Perpetual Peace (1795), and the Doctrine of Right, the first part of the Metaphysics of Morals (1797), Kant’s main works in political philosophy; the Doctrine of Virtue, the second part of the Metaphysics of Morals (1797), a catalogue of duties that Kant had been planning for more than thirty years; and Anthropology From a Pragmatic Point of View (1798), based on Kant’s anthropology lectures. Several other compilations of Kant’s lecture notes from other courses were published later, but these were not prepared by Kant himself. Kant retired from teaching in 1796. For nearly two decades he had lived a highly disciplined life focused primarily on completing his philosophical system, which began to take definite shape in his mind only in middle age. After retiring he came to believe that there was a gap in this system separating the metaphysical foundations of natural science from physics itself, and he set out to close this gap in a series of notes that postulate the existence of an ether or caloric matter. These notes, known as the Opus Postumum, remained unfinished and unpublished in Kant’s lifetime, and scholars disagree on their significance and relation to his earlier work. It is clear, however, that these late notes show unmistakable signs of Kant’s mental decline, which became tragically precipitous around 1800. Kant died February 12, 1804, just short of his eightieth birthday. 2. Kant’s project in the Critique of Pure Reason. The main topic of the Critique of Pure Reason is the possibility of metaphysics, understood in a specific way. Kant defines metaphysics in terms of â€Å"the cognitions after which reason might strive independently of all experience,† and his goal in the book is to reach a â€Å"decision about the possibility or impossibility of a metaphysics in general, and the determination of its sources, as well as its extent and boundaries, all, however, from principles† (Axii. See also Bxiv; and 4:255–257). Thus metaphysics for Kant concerns a priori knowledge, or knowledge whose justification does not depend on experience; and he associates a priori knowledge with reason. The project of the Critique is to examine whether, how, and to what extent human reason is capable of a priori knowledge. 2. 1 The crisis of the Enlightenment To understand the project of the Critique better, let us consider the historical and intellectual context in which it was written. [5] Kant wrote the Critique toward the end of the Enlightenment, which was then in a state of crisis. Hindsight enables us to see that the 1780’s was a transitional decade in which the cultural balance shifted decisively away from the Enlightenment toward Romanticism, but of course Kant did not have the benefit of such hindsight. The Enlightenment was a reaction to the rise and successes of modern science in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The spectacular achievement of Newton in particular engendered widespread confidence and optimism about the power of human reason to control nature and to improve human life. One effect of this new confidence in reason was that traditional authorities were increasingly questioned. For why should we need political or religious authorities to tell us how to live or what to believe, if each of us has the capacity to figure these things out for ourselves? Kant expresses this Enlightenment commitment to the sovereignty of reason in the Critique: Our age is the age of criticism, to which everything must submit. Religion through its holiness and legislation through its majesty commonly seek to exempt themselves from it. But in this way they excite a just suspicion against themselves, and cannot lay claim to that unfeigned respect that reason grants only to that which has been able to withstand its free and public examination (Axi). Enlightenment is about thinking for oneself rather than letting others think for you, according to What is Enlightenment? (8:35). In this essay, Kant also expresses the Enlightenment faith in the inevitability of progress. A few independent thinkers will gradually inspire a broader cultural movement, which ultimately will lead to greater freedom of action and governmental reform. A culture of enlightenment is â€Å"almost inevitable† if only there is â€Å"freedom to make public use of one’s reason in all matters† (8:36). The problem is that to some it seemed unclear whether progress would in fact ensue if reason enjoyed full sovereignty over traditional authorities; or whether unaided reasoning would instead lead straight to materialism, fatalism, atheism, skepticism (Bxxxiv), or even libertinism and authoritarianism (8:146). The Enlightenment commitment to the sovereignty of reason was tied to the expectation that it would not lead to any of these consequences but instead would support certain key beliefs that tradition had always sanctioned. Crucially, these included belief in God, the soul, freedom, and the compatibility of science with morality and religion. Although a few intellectuals rejected some or all of these beliefs, the general spirit of the Enlightenment was not so radical. The Enlightenment was about replacing traditional authorities with the authority of individual human reason, but it was not about overturning traditional moral and religious beliefs. Yet the original inspiration for the Enlightenment was the new physics, which was mechanistic. If nature is entirely governed by mechanistic, causal laws, then it may seem that there is no room for freedom, a soul, or anything but matter in motion. This threatened the traditional view that morality requires freedom. We must be free in order to choose what is right over what is wrong, because otherwise we cannot be held responsible. It also threatened the traditional religious belief in a soul that can survive death or be resurrected in an afterlife. So modern science, the pride of the Enlightenment, the source of its optimism about the powers of human reason, threatened to undermine traditional moral and religious beliefs that free rational thought was expected to support. This was the main intellectual crisis of the Enlightenment. The Critique of Pure Reason is Kant’s response to this crisis. Its main topic is metaphysics because, for Kant, metaphysics is the domain of reason – it is â€Å"the inventory of all we possess through pure reason, ordered systematically† (Axx) — and the authority of reason was in question. Kant’s main goal is to show that a critique of reason by reason itself, unaided and unrestrained by traditional authorities, establishes a secure and consistent basis for both Newtonian science and traditional morality and religion. In other words, free rational inquiry adequately supports all of these essential human interests and shows them to be mutually consistent. So reason deserves the sovereignty attributed to it by the Enlightenment. 2. 2 Kant’s Copernican revolution in philosophy To see how Kant attempts to achieve this goal in the Critique, it helps to reflect on his grounds for rejecting the Platonism of the Inaugural Dissertation. In a way the Inaugural Dissertation also tries to reconcile Newtonian science with traditional morality and religion, but its strategy is different from that of the Critique. According to the Inaugural Dissertation, Newtonian science is true of the sensible world, to which sensibility gives us access; and the understanding grasps principles of divine and moral perfection in a distinct intelligible world, which are paradigms for measuring everything in the sensible world. So on this view our knowledge of the intelligible world is a priori because it does not depend on sensibility, and this a priori knowledge furnishes principles for judging the sensible world because in some way the sensible world itself conforms to or imitates the intelligible world. Soon after writing the Inaugural Dissertation, however, Kant expressed doubts about this view. As he explained in a February 21, 1772 letter to his friend and former student, Marcus Herz: In my dissertation I was content to explain the nature of intellectual representations in a merely negative way, namely, to state that they were not modifications of the soul brought about by the object. However, I silently passed over the further question of how a representation that refers to an object without being in any way affected by it can be possible†¦. [B]y what means are these [intellectual representations] given to us, if not by the way in which they affect us? And if such intellectual representations depend on our inner activity, whence comes the agreement that they are supposed to have with objects — objects that are nevertheless not possibly produced thereby? †¦[A]s to how my understanding may form for itself concepts of things completely a priori, with which concepts the things must necessarily agree, and as to how my understanding may formulate real principles concerning the possibility of such concepts, with which principles experience must be in exact agreement and which nevertheless are independent of experience — this question, of how the faculty of understanding achieves this conformity with the things themselves, is still left in a state of obscurity. (10:130–131) Here Kant entertains doubts about how a priori knowledge of an intelligible world would be possible. The position of the Inaugural Dissertation is that the intelligible world is independent of the human understanding and of the sensible world, both of which (in different ways) conform to the intelligible world. But, leaving aside questions about what it means for the sensible world to conform to an intelligible world, how is it possible for the human understanding to conform to or grasp an intelligible world? If the intelligible world is independent of our understanding, then it seems that we could grasp it only if we are passively affected by it in some way. But for Kant sensibility is our passive or receptive capacity to be affected by objects that are independent of us (2:392, A51/B75). So the only way we could grasp an intelligible world that is independent of us is through sensibility, which means that our knowledge of it could not be a priori. The pure understanding alone could at best enable us to form representations of an intelligible world. But since these intellectual representations would entirely â€Å"depend on our inner activity,† as Kant says to Herz, we have no good reason to believe that they conform to an independent intelligible world. Such a priori intellectual representations could well be figments of the brain that do not correspond to anything independent of the human mind. In any case, it is completely mysterious how there might come to be a correspondence between purely intellectual representations and an independent intelligible world. Kant’s strategy in the Critique is similar to that of the Inaugural Dissertation in that both works attempt to reconcile modern science with traditional morality and religion by relegating them to distinct sensible and intelligible worlds, respectively. But the Critique gives a far more modest and yet revolutionary account of a priori knowledge. As Kant’s letter to Herz suggests, the main problem with his view in the Inaugural Dissertation is that it tries to explain the possibility of a priori knowledge about a world that is entirely independent of the human mind. This turned out to be a dead end, and Kant never again maintained that we can have a priori knowledge about an intelligible world precisely because such a world would be entirely independent of us. However, Kant’s revolutionary position in the Critique is that we can have a priori knowledge about the general structure of the sensible world because it is not entirely independent of the human mind. The sensible world, or the world of appearances, is constructed by the human mind from a combination of sensory matter that we receive passively and a priori forms that are supplied by our cognitive faculties. We can have a priori knowledge only about aspects of the sensible world that reflect the a priori forms supplied by our cognitive faculties. In Kant’s words, â€Å"we can cognize of things a priori only what we ourselves have put into them† (Bxviii). So according to the Critique, a priori knowledge is possible only if and to the extent that the sensible world itself depends on the way the human mind structures its experience. Kant characterizes this new constructivist view of experience in the Critique through an analogy with the revolution wrought by Copernicus in astronomy: Up to now it has been assumed that all our cognition must conform to the objects; but all attempts to find out something about them a priori through concepts that would extend our cognition have, on this presupposition, come to nothing. Hence let us once try whether we do not get farther with the problems of metaphysics by assuming that the objects must conform to our cognition, which would agree better with the requested possibility of an a priori cognition of them, which is to establish something about objects before they are given to us. This would be just like the first thoughts of Copernicus, who, when he did not make good progress in the explanation of the celestial motions if he assumed that the entire celestial host revolves around the observer, tried to see if he might not have greater success if he made the observer revolve and left the stars at rest. Now in metaphysics we can try in a similar way regarding the intuition of objects. If intuition has to conform to the constitution of the objects, then I do not see how we can know anything of them a priori; but if the object (as an object of the senses) conforms to the constitution of our faculty of intuition, then I can very well represent this possibility to myself. Yet because I cannot stop with these intuitions, if they are to become cognitions, but must refer them as representations to something as their object and determine this object through them, I can assume either that the concepts through which I bring about this determination also con.

Chemistry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chemistry - Essay Example One expects them to be the same and hence have similar properties which is not the case for example Ethyl alcohol has higher boiling point, the have different solubilities in water. ii) Burning wood leaves an ash that is only a small fraction of the mass of the original wood but according to Dalton, all matters is composed of extremely small indivisible and indestructible particles called atoms and chemicals changes are merely rearrangements of these atoms to form new compounds, the total number of atoms (and mass) remaining constant throughout. iv) According to Dalton, when elements combine to form compounds, they do so in proportion, which for any particular compound, are simple and fixed. Thus since the atoms any element have always the same mass, it follows that the proportion by mass of various elements in the compound are also fixed, which is not the case in liH since one sample is 89.4% of li by mass whereas the other is 74.9% li by

Euthanasia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Euthanasia - Research Paper Example The concept of Euthanasia or Physician Assisted Suicide is one such idea which has been subjected to many moral and ethical implications. The word euthanasia actually means â€Å"good death† and it is also sometimes referred to as â€Å"mercy killing.† It is a practice whereby the life of an individual is ended with the assistance of physicians to end the agonizing state and misery of a patient. The subject has sparked many controversies globally and many nations across the world have taken the bold step of legalizing this practice. Euthanasia is a practice which is mainly for the good of the patient as it is a method of ending the difficult state that a person lives in. It is mainly a patient selected option and the desire of the patient is given due preference before this practice is carried out (Knox 2005; Manning 1998). Euthanasia is a controversial practice but legalization of this practice is justified owing to the assistance that it brings to the people and owing to the fact that every individual has a right to choose what he considers correct for himself. The subject of Euthanasia is a globally acknowledged issue and there are many countries in the world that have legalized this practice. Netherlands, Switzerland and Belgium are amongst the countries where this practice has been allowed. Switzerland is a country where foreigners are also allowed to come and opt for this practice. There have been cases of people who go to Switzerland to undergo the process of euthanasia. These difficulties can be overcome if the euthanasia is globally legalized. According to statistics, many people from Britain have gone to Switzerland to avail the practice of euthanasia. Jacqueline Herremans who was the President of the Association for the Right to Die with Dignity in Brussels clearly upheld the fact that every individual has a right over his life. They do not need to take permission from the state or their doctors or from other groups for ending their lif e. Thus she argued that the practice of euthanasia should be legal so that people do not have to face difficulties in their personal choices (Knox 2005). The subject of euthanasia has become of increasing interest as the number of patients who are treated in the hospitals for euthanasia related issues have increased. The patients who mainly visit their physicians for euthanasia suffer from lethal and life hampering pathological conditions that greatly alters the living standards and the quality of life of those individuals. These people wish to end their lives with dignity as the pain and suffering in their life is beyond treatment and beyond their control. Furthermore, if this issue is considered with a different perspective, it can be seen that people who are suffering from fatal conditions require excessive monitoring and they may interfere with the treatment of other patients who suffer from curable diseases. Also, the number of people visiting the hospitals has greatly increase d over the years. Thus, if a person consents to and pleads the physician for a dignified death, he should be granted the permission to do so (Quaghebeur et al 2009). There has been strong opposition against the case of euthanasia by religious as well as ethical groups. According to religious groups, euthanasia is a process of killing someone and it is an unforgiveable act owing to the fact that the master of life and death is god. According to these groups, the act of opting for death is actually a challenge to the

Advertising and society Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Advertising and society - Research Paper Example This essay "Advertising and Society" describes the history of the ad and how the advertising industry works. Advertisement started among the ancient Babylonian Empire and from there the rest was history. â€Å"The first evidence of advertising was found among the ancient Babylonian Empire and dates back to the 3000s BC.† Therefore advertisement has systematically worked its way up the ladder of human consciousness and taken many years to attain the status it has today –that of a potentially influential medium (Hayko, 2010). Many psychologists and scholars believe that advertising has affected our society in shocking ways. For years they have studied the mental and emotional affects it can trigger in individuals and in turn the society at large. The ways in which advertising affects our society have been both negative and positive and have been fundamental to the advertising industry. The advertisement industry lives to sell itself. This is the main focal point of the entire hubbub in the media and the cashing of various products and ads. Without this primary and hunter-like objective, the advertisement industry would not be able to gain as much profit as it does now through deception and mockery. Through this instinct for survival and the ‘subliminally stimulated patterns the advertisement industry has adopted in order to ensnare more and more customers to buy their products. In order to understand the workings of advertising, we need to discuss the pros and cons of the advertisement industry in o rder to see how they mirror our society.

Personal and Professional Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Personal and Professional Development - Essay Example Based on my personality and self-assessment test result, a personal career action plan was presented in this report. Table of Contents Executive Summary ............................................................................................................... 2 Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... 3 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 4 2. Application of Theoretical Frameworks to Learning Experiences ............................ 5 2.1 Myers-Brigg’s Test ..................................................................................... 5 2.2 Johari’s Window ......................................................................................... 6 2.3 SWOT analysis ........................................................................................... 7 3. Career Action Pl an .................................................................................................... 7 4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ ... ...................................................................... 16 Appendix IV – SWOT Analysis Framework ........................................................................ 17 1. Introduction The act of getting to know oneself is important in both personal and professional development. Basically, my future career goal is to become a successful and effective HR manager. To make my future career goal a reality, I take it as a challenge to continuously improve my leadership skills at all times. Managing people is one of the most difficult jobs a person can have. Aside from keeping each employee motivated at work, it is part of the HR managers’ responsibility to handle each corporate employee effectively. By doing so, the HR manager can help the company save a lot of time, money, and effort in training and retaining a large number of highly competitive employees (Jackson, Schuler and Werner, 2012, p. 194). A company is usually composed of a group of diverse empl oyees. The fact that each employee has a unique set of cultural background, religious beliefs, educational attainment, work attitude and behaviour makes the task of HR managers even more complicated than it seems. For this reason, I assume that there is a strong need for HR managers to further improve their leadership skills. Leadership is strongly relevant to my preferred professional career and development. By focusing on the need to improve my leadership skills, I will be able to strongly â€Å"influence, select, equip, and train† employees without the need to use strong force on them (Winston and Patterson, 2006, p. 7). Furthermore, I strongly believe that through the use of a strong charismatic technique, I could easily win the attention and support of each employee. This will make me able to

Pharmaceutical companies and the supply of essential drugs to least Assignment

Pharmaceutical companies and the supply of essential drugs to least developed countries (LDCs) - Assignment Example of HIV/AIDS is used as an example for showing the level at which the firm is willing to promote ethics and to ignore the relevant effects on its profitability. The review of the firm’s practices in supporting the patients of HIV in South Africa has revealed the following facts: the firm has taken initiatives for promoting public health, or, else, public good, in the specific regions. However, the performance of the business in fully promoting CSR can be doubted, a view that it can be verified by the allegations that the firm has faced in the past for violating ethics. On the other hand, the measures that the firm took for supporting people in poor countries cannot be ignored. Thus, it could be concluded that the firm is willing to promote CSR but it could not achieve such target without making alterations in its CSR, as suggested below. The expansion of HIV/AIDS in South Africa is quite rapid. In the map in Figure 1 (Appendices) the infection from HIV globally is presented; through this map it is made clear that South Africa holds the first place, along with other African countries of the mid-Africa region, in regard to the infection from HIV. In South Africa the expansion of HIV seems to be related mostly to young girls who become victims of sexual exploitation by old men (BBC News 2013). The graph in Figure 2 (Appendices) presents the percentage of girls as compared to boys affected from HIV in Kenya; the difference between the two categories is clear. According to a report published in March of 2013 a percentage of about ‘25% school-girls in South Africa’ (BBC News 2013, par.1) has been infected by HIV/AIDS after suffering a sexual assault. The relevant research refers to young girls up to 14 years. In fact, in South Africa women are more exposed to the risk of HIV/AIDS than men: women in South Afri ca are infected by HIV/ AIDS at a percentage of 23.2% while for men the relevant percentage is significantly lower, about 18.8% (BBC News 2014, par.4). Today,

Assignment3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Assignment3 - Essay Example Further, the topic would be explored in the following ways: (1) relating the topic in terms of relating it to the course readings; (2) determining how does the article reflect an aspect of coupling as described in your course materials; (3) stipulating specific ways the article encouraged one to take a closer look at topics covered in the course; and (4) comparing and contrasting findings or points made in the article and readings. The author averred that the issue of cohabitation has drastically changed over a period of six decades. It was previously perceived as a deviant act during the 1950s and 1960s. Slowly, this practice was accepted as a practice prelude to marriage. Several factors contributed to the change in perception on cohabitation, to wit: (1) reduced pressure on cohabiting couples to eventually marry; (2) changing views on expectations to marry depending on age, status, and duration of relationship; (3) perceived problems in relationships; (4) ultimate marriage goals. Contemporary trends show a marked prevalence and increase in cohabitation rather than marriage. According to Qu, â€Å"while cohabitation was largely a stepping stone to marriage for earlier generations, more recent generations of cohabitors are less likely to marry and more likely to separate than cohabitors of earlier generations† (2003, 36). However, it is interesting to note that despite the prevalence of cohabitation in today’s generation; the basic premise for its proliferation remains the same: couples opting to cohabit eventually hope or expect to get married sometime in the future. The article confirmed the lessons relayed especially during the discussion of the topic on Sex and the Emergence of Sexual Identities. The lessons indicated that â€Å"changes in sexual activity and attitudes have weakened the role of marriage as the

Read the directions, answer the 3 question Assignment

Read the directions, answer the 3 question - Assignment Example Oral history has exhibited massive changes since it is passed by the word of mouth from one generation to another, hence may be a subject to bias. Historians do evaluate the validity and reliability of each source through content analysis. They must query the existence of the facts with relation to certain historical event. To establish the validity and reliability of the event, the historians have to make a clear comparison of two separate accounts of a similar event. The two accounts must show some relationship. Historians may also be at the verge of classifying the history with close reference to aspects of religion, culture or agriculture. Such classification does allow any historian to follow up closely on the relationship between any two frameworks, hence further illuminating the historical patterns (Breisach, pg. 67). Henry Kissinger does define history as the past memory of different countries. In his book A World Restored, he makes clear explanation of the concept of history. He explains the history of Europe in 19th century, making clear views of Austria and England but showing clear ignorance of the people who suffer from the policies of the country. Kissinger notes that history is not a result of the determination of a man. He emphasizes on the fallibility of man rather than his strengths. He puts it that history is an act of an unsuccessful attempt after several trials to bring order in a confused area. Primarily, he stresses on the point that history is simply a repeated failure of men to bring to a control the events at stake and achieve stability. He demonstrates a very pessimistic perception about history, laying emphasis on conflicts that do arise without any avoidance mechanisms. He responds to his claims by quoting that the peace that was in existence in Europe prior to French Revolu tion had been maintained by several men. He also adds that the lower class workers in Asia, Africa, and England did experience intense violence, hunger

The Role of Medical Laboratory Assistants Assignment

The Role of Medical Laboratory Assistants - Assignment Example But the main duty of MLAs is to process the sample so the MLA should have a sound knowledge about the sampling and the processing techniques as well as the local recommendations of the regional medical legislative authority. The main principles of planning a test include the propose of carrying out the test, the knowledge of the clinical suspicion for a particular disease. Then the time frame of performance is planned followed by the list of the equipment and the chemical used and then the standard procedures for the investigation are gone through in detail to exclude the possibility of missing anything. Basically, the responsibility of accurate and timely reporting of test results lies on the personnel working in the laboratory as there are many problems which can arise even before the sample has undergone the analytical process. These errors can only be tackled properly if the prior understanding of the process, as well as the capability to identify any error in these processes, is present in the MLAs. In addition to this, controlled and correct interpretation of results needs a comprehensive knowledge of analytical, biological and pathophysiological variability and the extent of this change. There should also be sound knowledge about the time span in which changes can occur in the sample resulting in the variations and errors in the final results. Reproducibility shows the relation of the results of the tests carried out with different operators, test apparatus and in different laboratories, it is usually expressed in the form of standard deviation. It is directly related to the accuracy of the results and MLAs should be able to reproduce the results which are accepted worldwide. The process review techniques should be quick and easy as it will save the time of quality control supervisors.  

Inquiring Minds Want to Know-Now Essay Example for Free

Inquiring Minds Want to Know-Now Essay Penton Media is a publisher of several business trade magazines, and their research department is studying the long-term viability of the reader service card within its publications (Cooper Schindler, 2014). This card is an advertisement card used for readers to request product or service information, and potentially could be generating fewer leads than in the past (Cooper Schindler, 2014). The research division of Penton Media conducted a meticulous research with many diverse readers through various diverse forms of communication. Penton Media is now faced with the challenge on determining if this reader service card will sustain ad be beneficial in the future. The survey is not clear and is perplexing. Questions should be directive and closed ended. In this survey the questions asked are not directive questions, but moderately open ended questions that would discourage a user from completing the survey. When the questions are not specific it would give feedback that is not what key decision makers are seeking. The wording of the questions is equally adequate for the responses needed; but, they could be more designed to yield desired results. This method could motivates users to not only complete the survey, but also provide honest and reliable feedback. There is not enough purpose or direction present to encourage the participant to give revealing answers (Cooper Schindler, 2014). Having a more direct, concise, and structured questionnaire would not only get the feedback that is warranted, increase participation, but more time could be used to reevaluate the response that are received. This survey was not designed properly to accomplish the specified objectives. Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to the questionnaire for the purpose of grouping the data (Cooper Schindler, 2014). For each question the researcher must assign numbers to each response available in order to code the data correctly. A code sheet will allow an SPSS system to quickly find the frequency, percent, valid percent, and cumulative percent of each response. The detail of the code sheet will produce detailed SPSS results which will allow the researcher to clearly interpret the data.

Effectiveness of Fracking Regulations

Effectiveness of Fracking Regulations Overview of Report This report has been prepared by The MSSD for the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Governments. This report will be looking at the effectiveness of the regulatory framework of the fracking industry, it will assess the current framework, evaluating whether the framework is fit for purpose, and if not, propose alternatives considering that a lighter touch to regulation is the approach wanting to be taken. Because we are only at the exploratory phase of drilling in the UK, the main focus will be on pre-drilling regulations. What is Fracking? We will briefly look at what Fracking is and how it works, and looking at this will also allow us to be able to assess the most pressing environmental concerns and the controversies surrounding fracking. Fracking is the process of drilling down into the earth before a high-pressure water mixture is directed at the rock to release the gas inside.  Water, sand and chemicals are injected into the rock at high pressure which allows the gas to flow out to the head of the well.  The process can be carried out vertically or, more commonly, by drilling horizontally to the rock layer and can create new pathways to release gas or can be used to extend existing channels. The term fracking refers to how the rock is fractured apart by the high-pressure mixture.[1] In the UK, drilling is only at an exploratory phase, however, there are plans for this to intensify as shale gas reserves have been identified across the UK. Impacts and Concerns Having looked at what Fracking is, we will identify it’s impacts on the environment and its most pressing concerns. The extraction of shale gas is a topic that is highly controversial in the United Kingdom, this is mainly because of the environmental concerns it raises. One of the major concerns is the water usage in the extraction, the volume of water that is needed. Vast amounts of water are required for the process and this must be transported to the fracking sites[2]. The water tends to be transported to the sites, which has its own environmental impacts, though some sites could use the local water resources and the volume of water that is required could place a strain on local water resources. In addition to the amounts of water, the water is mixed with chemicals, this mixture could escape and could spill or contaminate groundwater in the surrounding areas. Another concern is that fracking could lead to small earthquakes. This was the case in the town of Blackpool, where two tremors struck, one registered a magnitude 2.3 and the other 1.3. Both tremors occurred near the local drilling site. This caused the operation to suspended, the site operators, Cuadrilla, commissioned a report, which found that â€Å"Most likely, the repeated seismicity was induced by direct injection of fluid into the fault zone†[3] The report goes on to question whether further earthquakes are to be expected from fracking, it says â€Å"the earthquakes occurred because of a rare combination of circumstances: the fault was already under stress, was brittle enough to fracture and had space for large amounts of water that could lubricate it†. The report says â€Å"this is unlikely to happen again at the Preese Hall site.†[4] To reduce the risk of earthquakes, it has been proposed that seismic activity monitoring is introduced around fracking sites. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fracking The main advantages of fracking include, an increase in the production of natural gas, some could argue that this would ease the burden on finite resources such as fossil fuels, fracking would thus diversify our energy supplies. A further advantage is that this is a relatively clean energy source, providing environmental benefit. The gas produced emits less carbon per calorie of energy produced than other fossil fuels. It is easy to inject and it can be transported directly, shale gas requires very little infrastructure investment before it can be injected into the national gas grid, thus proving to be an economical benefit. Fracking is also the most natural way to pump gas from the ground. An abundant supply of natural gas makes prices relatively cheap to producers and consumers. The disadvantages of fracking include, Risk of groundwater pollution, Risk of localised earthquakes (probably not a huge risk when well-regulated in the UK), Localised noise and traffic congestion, Loss of amenities, when fracking wells are sited in areas of natural beauty and national parks, A high water demand for the â€Å"process water† needed by the fracking technology used, potentially entailing additional stress on water supplies, Planning blight on local properties, and suffering by those unfortunate enough to live near a proposed site for a fracking well. [5] Environmental Policy Context Fracking also poses wider questions about current thinking on sustainability and the environment. [6] John Allen writes, â€Å"the shale revolution has the potential to provide the UK with local, low cost, clean sources of energy and potential for local energy independence† [7] from a sustainable development viewpoint, this makes for positive reading. If fracking is low cost and a cleaner source of energy, it enables sustainable development. However, looking at the intricacies of fracking, this may not seem the case. For the process to take place, a vast number of resources are needed, and here you look at whether fracking, as an industry, is sustainable. The shale gas industry consumes materials such as water, sand, chemical treatments, drilling fluids, all of which require transport by road and rail. Perhaps one of the biggest challenges is the use of water, the volume required is vast, and to sustain that, there must be an infrastructure in place and policies in place to ensure that whilst providing the water to sites, there is no inconvenience to the water flow in the local area and if being transported via tank to the site, this must be done in a way where the environment is put first. If we are looking at this from the standpoint â€Å"what is best for the environment†, surely the question would be, why does the policy not encourage the use of no oil and gas in the UK, because this would be the best policy for the environment. The answer to this would be several factors, mainly economical and convenience, the ecosystems we live with and in are so adept to using those resources, that to prohibiting use would mean that our systems would fail to exist. A middle ground has been established, whereby the environment is somewhat protected and that human needs are met, and this needs to be the case with fracking, whilst there are signs that there are benefits, economically the policy must promote sustainable development. â€Å"History shows us that whenever we can extract fossil fuels, short term gain, usually trumps long- term consequence. Much has been made, on both sides of the argument, of the US experience, but fracking has not found universal welcome. France, for instance, is in the process of banning it, and Poland is currently deciding whether to develop the industry, or concentrate on other forms of energy.† [8] John Allen If there is regulation and procedures in place to negate the downsides, surely a cleaner alternative is beneficial long term.      Regulation of Fracking Now we will be looking at the regulatory framework that is in place for the industry. This section will be split into three parts: 1) An overview of the regulatory framework, 2) Assess and analyse the strengths and weaknesses of the frameworks, 3) Consider whether any improvements can be made to the framework, looking at different types of regulation.    Overview of Regulation The Environment Agency (EA) in England and Wales, and Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) are the environmental regulators who monitor the environmental aspects of shale gas fracking. The key regulation that governs how shale gas fracking operators comply with environmental laws is the Environmental Permitting Regulations 2010.[9] Figure 2: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/about-shale-gas-and-hydraulic-fracturing-fracking/developing-shale-oil-and-gas-in-the-uk#regulation The framework that surrounds fracking is one that is quite complex. Companies wanting to explore must have permission from a number of regulatory bodies before they can proceed. In order to explore and produce shale gas, operators must pass rigorous health and safety, environmental and planning permission processes.[10] The first stage is obtaining a Petroleum Exploration and Development License, (PEDL), these are issued by the Oil and Gas Authority. The Oil and Gas Authority work closely with other regulatory partners to ensure that the exploration and development is safe and sustainable. [11] A PEDL obligates companies to follow its terms. Key PEDL terms include: conferral of the right to get petroleum, payment of fees in return, parameters of the field licensed to the operator, obligation to obtain written consent prior to drilling, operator’s obligation to work the licensed area in accordance with ‘good oilfield practice’ and termination and surrender provisions. PEDLS are licenses which grant exclusivity to operators in the license area, they do not give immediate consent for drilling an exploration well or any other operation. Briefing paper After a PEDL has been granted, the operator of the proposed site must then obtain local planning permission from the Minerals Planning Authority, as shale gas operations involve the extraction of minerals. The MPA involves local authorities including representatives from districts and county councils.[12]   Planning applications require the submission of a standard application form, supported by plans and drawings, certificates of ownership relating to the application site and design and access statements. An operator must also negotiate access with landowners. A PEDL and planning permission alone do not give operators consent to conduct their operations, access must be secured by the operator, this tends to be through a license or a lease to be taken that are conditional on the grant of satisfactory planning consent. When a decision is made on a planning application, only planning matters called â€Å"material considerations† can be taken into account. There is no exhaustive list of what constitutes a material planning consideration, although there are some â€Å"principal issues† for consideration, shown in Figure 3 [13] MPA’s are screened to determine whether any proposals require an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), the Environment Protection Agency an EIA describe this as â€Å"the process by which the anticipated effects on the environment of a proposed development or project are measured.  If the likely effects are unacceptable, design measures or other relevant mitigation measures can be taken to reduce or avoid those effects.†[14] This, however, is a contentious issue, as it’s not clear whether operators are obliged to conduct and EIA and submit an environmental statement under the EU’s EIA Directive[15] to accompany their application. Under the EU law, all projects require an environmental statement, though those under Annex 2 require a case-by-case examination, and considering certain criteria, it is determined that such a project is likely to have significant effects on the environment. Even if an EIA is not required, environmental and health impacts can be addresses through the conditions of planning permission. Mineral Planning Authorities are responsible for ensuring operators comply with these conditions. The MPA, in determining an application, will consider the advice of a variety of statutory consultees with regards to the protection of the environment and the public. Local planning conditions can address the aesthetic impacts, as well as contributions to local noise, traffic and air pollution. The density of local population may be considered in the local planning permission process. There will also be conditions for when operations finish, the operator would be responsible for safe abandonment of the well and for restoring the well-site to its previous state or a suitable condition for re-use. The authority which granted permission would require suitable restoration as a condition of the planning permission. [16] The next part of the regulatory process is that operators will probably require a number of environmental permits issued by the Environment Agency under the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations to conduct onshore activities.   The environment agency takes a risk-based approach to regulating, thus the regulation of each site is bespoke to that site, as the they take into account local site characteristics and site specific environmental risks.   The Environment Agency  ensures that any shale gas operations are conducted in a way that protects people and the environment. The Environment Agency’s environmental permitting regulations cover: protecting water resources, including groundwater (aquifers) as well as assessing and approving the use of chemicals which form part of the hydraulic fracturing fluid, appropriate treatment and disposal of mining waste produced during the borehole drilling and hydraulic fracturing process, suitable treatment and management of any naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) and disposal of waste gases through flaring.[17]   With regards to water, if operators are wishing to abstract more than 20 cubic meters per day for operational purposes, they will need to obtain a water abstraction license under section 24/24A of the Water Resources Act 1991[18] The licenses are issues by the Environment Agency. A factor to bear in mind here is the Environment Agency make it clear that water availability at site is not â€Å"guaranteed†, this links back to the planning permission stage, as if the operators are unable to have a pipeline, they will have to transport the water to the site, which is expensive, but also, with regards to the environment, transporting tanks of water would be something they would have to consider. Another element to be considered is the element of â€Å"induced seismicity†. The MPAs should consult the British Geological Survey (BGS) to advise on induced seismicity and help to identify suitable locations for well, drawing on a national and site-specific understanding of geology. [19] Under s.23 of the Mining Industry Act 1926[20] â€Å"firm sinking boreholes greater than 100ft (30m) deep must give written notification to the Natural Environmental Research Council. Operators are under several other continuing obligations, such as keeping records of their operations and retain specimen cores. Once the above has been completed, the operator must notify the Health and Safety Executive at least of 21 days in advance of any drilling operations, The Borehile and Operations Regulations 1995[21] require this. A coordinated regulatory effort is required to ensure that shale gas wells are designed, constructed and operated to standards that protect both people and the environment, it must be noted that it only protects those in proximity of sites. HSE monitors shale gas operations from a well integrity and site safety perspective. We oversee that safe working practices are adopted by onshore operators as required under the Health and Safety at Work Etc. Act 1974, and regulations made under the Act. These specifically are: The Borehole Site and Operations Regulations 1995 (BSOR) applies to shale gas operations.   (These regulations are primarily concerned with the health and safety management of the site). The Offshore Installations and Wells (Design and Construction, etc.) Regulations 1996 (DCR)[22] apply to all wells drilled with a view to the extraction of petroleum regardless of whether they are onshore or offshore. (These regulations are primarily concerned with well integrity). HSE works closely with the Environment Agency (EA) and the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) to share relevant information on such activities and to ensure that there are no material gaps between the safety, environmental protection and planning authorisation considerations, and that all material concerns are addressed. [23] Drilling operations must not be commenced unless a health and safety policy is prepared which demonstrates that adequate measure will be taken to safeguard the health and safety of the persons on the site. Once the HSE step is completed, we arrive at one of the final steps in the regulatory process. This is the Oil and Gas Authorities consent to drill. Operators are obliged to seek the OGAs written consent prior to the start of drilling operations. OGA consent is one of the final, and coordinating consents in the shale gas process. In considering whether to issue consent to drill, the OGA will have regard to the suite of regulatory controls discussed above, including ensuring that planning permission is in place, environmental permits and consents have been obtained, and that the HSE has received notice of intention to drill. Planning permission is one of the approvals required before any activity may start on a site. The planning authority decides whether the activity is acceptable at that particular location, after local communities and other interested people have had the opportunity to set out their view on the benefits and impacts of the proposal. On receipt of OGA’s consent to drill, and subject to the finalisation of a hydraulic fracturing plan and agreed method for monitoring induced seismicity (where fracking is going to be conducted), an operator has in place the requisite consents and may continue its operations. This concludes the pre-drilling regulatory framework, there is a duty in place whilst drilling takes place, and as mentioned, conditions are set out for after the drilling process has been completed. Strengths and Weaknesses One of the main strengths with the framework presented above, in my opinion, is that the process to start drilling is so rigorous. There are many steps an operator must take in order to start drilling, this has a lot of cost and time investment necessary, so these rigorous checks and procedures ensure that the operator is competent and ensuring the environmental protection necessary to offset any negative impacts of fracking in the main. Another strength with the framework is the fact that a condition of granting permission to drill, there must be plans in place on how the site will be restored to ensure that it becomes usable land again, showing that the regulation is offering a protection measure. However, it could be argued that there are more weaknesses with the regulation. One of the major ones that comes across with the regulation framework provided above, is one concerning Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). An operator may have to carry out an EIA, if the MPA deem necessary when screening the proposal presented, however, there is no obligation to do so, it only has to happen should the MPA feel it is a necessity in this case.   There isn’t a â€Å"one size all fits† approach here, it’s bespoke. Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) has become best practice in non-shale gas industries[24], however like the EIA, an ERA is not mandatory, an ERA, unlike an EIA would assess not only the impacts of hazards, but also their likelihood. In their report, the Royal Society recommended[25], that to manage environmental risks, an Environmental Risk Assessment should be mandatory for all shale gas operations, involving the participation of local communities at the earliest possible opportunity. I would agree with this statement, an EIA and ERA should be a mandatory step, for all potential operators and cases of fracking, not just some, it should be a universal requirement when applying to drill for shale gas. In her Article, Emily Gosden writes that the Fracking Regulations may inadequate, with regards to climate change[26]. From the regulation mentioned above, it does not tackle issues such as climate change in much depth, whilst it looks at environmental factors, it seems that this isn’t the most pressing matter on the agenda. The article reports that Britain’s fracking regulations may be inadequate to prevent environmentally damaging methane leaks, and that the current regulatory regime fell short of the minimum necessary standards. [27] Prof Jim Skea, one of the report’s authors, said that the law instead gave â€Å"quite a lot of discretion† to the Environment Agency (EA) over what monitoring it would require of future shale gas production. Here, I would agree, the EA can often be quite vague when it comes to these matters, an example mentioned above would be the water abstraction licenses requirement, the EA are very vague when it comes to a definitive answer. This could be something that could be further considered. Another weakness in my opinion is that the current framework at present, isn’t very environment focused, and even if it is, a lot of the environmental factors aren’t factors that are mandatory for operators or regulators to take into account, as already mentioned, the EIA not being mandatory is one part. The regulation does not look at in enough detail issues such as climate change, air pollution, water pollution, and other means of contamination, these factors should be of more importance when coming to regulate the shale gas industry, yes, they may be considered, but even that at best is brief. Alternate Proposals The current framework that has been looked at in this report can be seen to be rigorous in the main, there are a number of steps an operator must take before being able to start the process. The current framework could be seen as being on the â€Å"heavier side† of regulation, and in the brief, a theory was posited that there be a lighter touch on regulation, in this section, we will look at whether this can be the case, and if so, how can it be the case.    With regards to regulation, there are two approaches that can be taken. There is Direct Regulation, which can often be referred to as â€Å"the command and control† regime, this is where standards are set, as are penalties for failing to meet them, there are often several ways of drafting direct regulation. [28] The other approach is Indirect Regulation. Whereas direct regulations focus on the polluting activity itself, indirect regulation tends to centre on economic instruments, the effect of which will be to impose higher burdens on higher polluters, there is also self-regulating, whereby you can apply methods such as voluntary environmental agreements and codes of conducts to regulate. These systems tend to have vague standards and are flexible and non-interventionist in their nature. We will look at whether we stay with a command and control approach adopted, or would a self-regulating approach be more effective in this situation. Before we start that, we will briefly look at whether the current framework we have looked at is effective in its purpose, however looking at the effectiveness of the framework is an area where one struggles as in the UK, we are not at the stages where there is mass production of shale gas, we are merely at the early exploratory stages of the process. The only real working example is the Cuadrilla site as mentioned at the start of this report. Though some regulation, such as the induced seismicity was introduced because of that site. Self-regulating such an industry seems impractical considering the disadvantages mentioned earlier in the report. Simon Sneddon writes that this method of regulation is more flexible than the traditional command and control methods, and this method is non-interventionist in nature and that these methods are criticised for having vague standards and for being unaccountable, and there is no realistic enforcement system. This, as a regulation method would not work with an industry such as fracking. An industry where there are many impacts both environmental and economic and as such a framework of command and control would be better suited, there is a set of rules, or steps put in place and there are penalties and fines for operators should they fail to abide. This is very similar to the current framework in place. The risks that fracking entails, it would be a uncertain approach to have a light touch to regulation. However, when there is more data to analyse once further fracking takes place, it may be the case that we could adopt a self-regulating framework or one that is lighter than the one in place, but until then, the current â€Å"command and control† framework is one that is effective and sufficient for use. Conclusion The regulation in place at present is several steps that an operator must take before they are able to drill for shale gas. The procedure is one that is described as rigorous and upon evaluation this seems to be the case, though as mentioned when looking at alternatives, there is no way of knowing how effective the regulation is in the UK, until there are more working examples of fracking. [i] [1] Bbccouk,  What is fracking and why is it controversial?   (BBC News,  16 December 2015)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [2] Bgs,  Potential environmental considerations associated with shale gas  (Bgsacuk,  0)  accessed 10 May 2017 [3] Michael Marshall,  How fracking caused earthquakes in the UK  (New Scientist,  2 November 2011)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [4] Ibid 3 [5] Steve Last,  The pros and cons of fracking in the UK and why you need to know about them  (Lowimpactorg,  14 October 2016)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [6] DrGareth Evans,  Fracking: Truly Sustainable?  (Sustainablebuildcouk,  16 Dec 2016)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [7] Allen John,  Fracking: believe the hype for a sustainable UK energy market  (The Guardian,  22 January 2014 )  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [8] Ibid 6 [9] Hsegovuk,  The regulation of onshore unconventional oil and gas exploration (shale gas)  (Hsegovuk,  0)  accessed 10 May 2017 [10] Govuk,  Guidance on Fracking: Developing shale gas in the UK  (Wwwgovuk,  13 January 2017)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [11] Govuk,  Guidance on Fracking: Developing shale gas in the UK  (Wwwgovuk,  13 January 2017)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [12] Society, T. (2012).  Shale gas extraction in the UK: A review of hydraulic fracturing. [13] Briefing Paper Number 6073 on Shale Gas and Fracking – House of Commons Library [14] Wwwepaie,  Environmental Impact Assessment   (Wwwepaie,  0)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [15] Directive 2011/92/EU [16] Department of Energy and Climate Change – Fracking UK Shale: Regulation and Monitoring – February 2014 [17] Govuk,  Guidance on Fracking: Developing shale gas in the UK  (Wwwgovuk,  13 January 2017)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 [18] Water Resources Act 1991 [19] Ibid 7 [20] Mining Industry Act 1926 [21] Borehile and Operations Regulations 1995 [22] The Offshore Installations and Wells (Design and Constructions, etc.) Regulations 1996 [23] Hsegovuk,  The regulation of onshore unconventional oil and gas exploration (shale gas)  (Hsegovuk,  0)  accessed 10 May 2017 [24] Contribution from Professor Simon Pollard, Head of Department, Environmental Science and Technology, Cranfield University [25] Society, T. (2012).  Shale gas extraction in the UK: A review of hydraulic fracturing. [26] E Gosden, ‘Fracking regulations inadequate’ The Telegraph (7 July 2016) accessed 10 May 2017 [27] ibid 20 [28] Simon Sneddon,  Environmental Law  (2ND edn,  Pearson  2015)  54-61 [i] Bibliography Websites http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14432401 http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/energy/shaleGas/environmentalImpacts.html https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21120-how-fracking-caused-earthquakes-in-the-uk/ http://www.hse.gov.uk/offshore/unconventional-gas.htm https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/about-shale-gas-and-hydraulic-fracturing-fracking/developing-shale-oil-and-gas-in-the-uk#regulation https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/about-shale-gas-and-hydraulic-fracturing-fracking/developing-shale-oil-and-gas-in-the-uk#regulation http://www.epa.ie/monitoringassessment/assessment/eia/ http://www.hse.gov.uk/offshore/unconventional-gas.htm Steve Last,  The pros and cons of fracking in the UK and why you need to know about them  (Lowimpactorg,  14 October 2016)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 DrGareth Evans,  Fracking: Truly Sustainable?  (Sustainablebuildcouk,  16 Dec 2016)  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 Allen John,  Fracking: believe the hype for a sustainable UK energy market  (The Guardian,  22 January 2014 )  Ã‚  accessed 10 May 2017 Directives Directive 2011/92/EU Reports Society, T. (2012).  Shale gas extraction in the UK: A review of hydraulic fracturing. Contribution from Professor Simon Pollard, Head of Department, Environmental Science and Technology, Cranfield University E Gosden, ‘Fracking regulations inadequate’ The Telegraph (7 July 2016) accessed 10 May 2017 Department of Energy and Climate Change – Fracking UK Shale: Regulation and Monitoring – February 2014 Briefing Paper Number 6073 on Shale Gas and Fracking – House of Commons Library Acts Water Resources Act 1991 Mining Industry Act 1926 Borehile and Operations Regulations 1995 The Offshore Installations and Wells (Design and Constructions, etc.) Regulations 1996 Books Simon Sneddon,  Environmental Law  (2ND edn,  Pearson  2015)  54-61 Misc. PowerPoints and Notes from Lectures.

Intravenous therapy is an infusion of medicine and fluids into vein

Intravenous therapy is an infusion of medicine and fluids into vein BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Intravenous therapy is an infusion of medicine and fluids into a vein. IV therapy is essential part of clinical use. There are also complications which included in IV infusion are local and systemic, local include thrombophlebitis, infiltration, extravasations, nerve injury and systemic include bacteremia, septicemia, emboli, thrombus, circulatory overload etc . Thrombophlebitis,Thrombo means clot Phlebo means vein and itis means inflammation. Thrombophlebitis refers to the presence of a clot plus inflammation in the vein. Phlebitis is defined as the acute inflammation of internal lining of the vein Infusion Nursing Standards of Practice (2000). According to international association of pain (IASP) (1994), pain is an unpleasant sensory experience associated with actual and potential tissue damage. The pain is classified as nociceptive, neuropathic, acute and chronic pain. The nociceptive pain is caused due to damage to somatic or visceral tissue damage which pain from surgical incision ,a broken bone, or arthritis ,the neuropathic pain is caused by damage to peripheral nerves or CNS which include trauma, inflammation ,metabolic diseases like diabetes mellitus, tumors, toxins, and neurologic diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute pain is dure to post operative pain ,labour pain, and pain from trauma and the chronic pain is for longer periods due to cancer. Pain is a highly unpleasant and professional sensation that cannot be shared with others. It can occupy all a personal thinking, direct all activities and change a person. Yet pain is a difficult concept for a client to communicate. Pain is universal experience its exact nature becomes mystery. Unrelieved pain presents both physiological and psychological hazards to health and recovery. Care givers should include assessment of pain as a fifth vital sign to emphasize its significance and to increase the awareness among the health care professional of the importance of effective pain management. There are many non pharmacological measures which is provided including massage, exercise, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, accupunture heat therapy, cold therapies, and cognitive therapies including distraction ,hypnosis and relaxation strategies. Edema which is the accumulation of fluid in subcutaneous tissue due to extracellular volume expansion. There is swelling of tissues which can be demonstrated by pressing lightly with the thumb over a bony prominence especially on dorsum of feet and around the ankles. The types of edema include hydrostatic edema, oncotic edema, inflammatory and traumatic edema and lymphatic edema. Phlebitis can be classified into 3 three categories which include mechanical, chemical and bacterial where mechanical is due to the size of cannula is too big for the selected vein causing unnecessary friction on the internal lining leading to inflammation, chemical phlebitis is due to peripheral IV devices when the medication or solution irritate the endothelial lining of the small peripheral vessel wall and bacterial phlebitis is usually precursor to an infection at the infection site. Thrombophlebitis is evident by localized pain,redness, warmth, and swelling around the insertion site or along the path of the vein,immobility of the extremity because of discomfort and swelling. Non pharmacological treatment includes discontinuing the IV, applying a warm compress, elevating of the extremity, and restraining the line in the opposite extremity .In the presence of signs and symptoms of thrombophlebitis, one should not attempt to irrigate the line. Pharmacological and non pharmacological agents are available for relief of pain, edema and inflammation. The cost and side effects are comparatively high in modern medicine. The number of client seeking unconventional treatment has risen considerably. Nonpharmocological therapies, natural therapies, cryotherapies, and aromatherapies are available with less expensive and fewer side effects. Likewise in combact aloveragel is also very much used in reducing pain, edema and severity of inflammation. For local treatment in order to relieve pain, edema and severity of inflammation alovera gel can be used. Since in the era of Ancient Egypt humans having using aloe. They used one of the ingredients of embalming fluid. In the tenth century, the Europeans were introduced, where it became an important ingredient in many herbal medicines. By the sixteenth century, aloe arrived in the West Indies, where still today it is harvested. Alovera is one of the therapeutic herbs as a healing plant. The uses of aloe of popularized in 1950s itself.There are over 300 different types of aloe, but only a few were used traditionally as an herbal medicine. In the middle ages the yellowish liquid found inside the leaves was a favored as purgative. Aloevera gel is the mucilaginious gel produced from the centre (the parenchyma) of the plant leaf. It contains 400 species.The gel portion of the plant is prepared by peeling the outer portion of the skin and the pericap away. It is preparation which is called pure aloevera gel in commerce. Aloevera is thick, tapered with spiny leaves grow from a short stalk near ground level. It is not a cactus, but a member of the tree Lilly family known as Aloe Barbandesis. Some species , in particular Aloevera are used in alternative medicine and in home first aid .Both the translucent inner pulp and the resinous yellow exudates from wounding the Aloe plant are used externally to relive skin disc omforts. The gel found in the leaves is used for soothing minor burns, wounds and various skin conditions like eczema and ringworm. Aloevera gel has both antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects. The constituents include gibberlin,lectins,lignins,glucose ,mannose, glucuronic acid other polysaccharides including galctogalacturans and galactoglucoarabinomannas.The most abundant constituents is water(99%).The aloevera gel contain anti-inflammatory agent gibberlin and polysaccharides which effectively decrease inflammation and promote healing.Aloevera effectively relieves pain because it contain salicylic acid .Aloevera contain ligin which helps to penetrate deeply into skin to deliver its therapeutic effects. Most of the nursing interventions fit comfortably within the real of the natural therapys the illness healing paradigm shift and converge, and role of nurses shifts can gives to the healer. Therefore aloevera gel could be a suitable intervention which helps the nurse to reduce pain, edema and phlebitis. NEED FOR THE STUDY IV therapy has become a pervasive world wide as a routine therapy. Nurses yearly still insert, use and monitor millions of peripheral venous catheters (PVC).To diagnose and assess phlebitis severity is essential as a way to prevent a host of severe complications such as septic phlebitis, bacteremia, septicemia, arthritis, osteomyleitis eventually leading to death. However it is still prone to associated complications, of which phlebitis is most common, with prevalence varying between 20% to 80% Workman (2000). Villicampa (2008)Spanish review a national multicentric epidemiological study having the institutional participation of 10 centres. In this study 381 complications appears in the 2701 peripheral catheters studied which represents an incidence level of 14.11%.They reviewed 8700 treatment records this study proved that implementation of strategies to improve the quality of care reduces non instrumental complication persistent pain at the entrance point ,extravasations of edema, second or third degree phlebitis and infection associated with catheters. Nassaji Zaveareh (2007) conducted a prospective study on peripheral interventions catheter related factor .In this study 300 patients admitted to medical and surgical wards from April 2003 to Feb2004 were participated. Variables evaluated were age ,gender, site and size of catheter ,type of insertion and underlying condition were observed for 3 days continuously. Out of that 26 % occurred phlebitis . There were no significant relationship between age catheter bore size trauma and phlebitis. Related risk factors were gender,ie.,female site and type of insertion of catheter, diabetes mellitus and burns. Important role of nurse is to control pain that of thrombophlebitis. The quality of care received in the hospital was often reflected in client care. Among paramedical profession, nursing personals were inserting intravenous line, monitoring, administering intravenous fluids and administering medicines. Maintenance of peripheral intravenous cannulae and removal of peripheral cannulae was an integral component of nursing care. Nordell, et al.,(2002)in a study of 52 patients, found 5 diagnosed cases of thrombophlebitis (10% ) .Out of fifty two patients twenty six hand or wrist venipunctures, he found 3 with thrombophlebitis.Also he had done Fifteen forearm punctures produced the other 2 cases of phlebitis while of the eleven patients undergoing antecubital fossa venipuncture, none were found to have developed thrombophlebitis. The reported incidences of thrombophlebitis vary from a low of 2% 21 up to 15%.33.One well-controlled Swedish study of over 1000 cases reported venous complications of many types at 31% is having thrombophlebitis. Singh , Bhandary ( 2007) , Dhulikhel Hospital Kathmandu University Teaching Hospital, Nepal carried out a prospective observational study to determine the occurrence of peripheral intravenous catheter related phlebitis and to the possible factors associated to its development.A total 230 patients under intravenous catheter were selected peripheral infusion site was examined for signs of phlebitis once a day using jackson Standard visual phlebitis scale and the result obtained was 136(59.1%)patients developed thrombophlebitis. Related risk factors as found in the present study were insertion site (forearm), size of catheter (20G) and dwell time (>=36 hours). There were higher incident of phlebitis among the client with Intra venous drug administration and especially between ages 21 40 years. Therefore more attention and care are needed in these areas by the care provider. In another study the overall phlebitis rate was 39%. Phlebitis developed in 53% of patients with short lines, in 41% of patients with midsized lines, and in 10% of patients with long lines, and these catheters remained in place an average (Â ± SD) of 3.0 Â ± 2.4 days, 4.6 Â ± 3.4 days, and 7.8 Â ± 6.6 days, respectively. The variables that influenced the development of phlebitis, as determined by multivariate analysis, type of catheter, blood hemoglobin levels, and IV therapy with either corticosteroids or erythromycin Lutter et al.,conducted a retrospective survey to identify the complication of venous catheterization in the left lower limb and right lower limb for 1,143 patients. Patients occurred phlebitis in 56% in left lower limb 51% in right lower limb. Aloevera has salicylic acid which include in analgesic effects, it contains ligin which helps to penetrate deeply into skin to deliver the therapeutic effects, it contain anti-inflammatory agent gibberlin and polysaccharides which decrease inflammation and promote healing. Netherlands, conducted a prospective study on treatment of superficial thrombophlebitis with aloevera gel in relieving the local pain, swelling and redness. In this 116 patients were selected with thrombophlebitis and applied for a period of 3 days. The efficacy of aloevera was recorded. There is a drastic improvement in patient received aloevera gel as treatment than the control group Winchers IM (2005). The investigator selected this study because during her clinical experience has observed the many patients who had admitted in the hospital with cannula, developed the catheter related complications such as blockage, pain, redness and thrombophlebitis. This incidence insists the investigator to do some intervention to overcome this problem. Nurses need to be equipped with current interventional skills in relieving the pain, edema severity of inflammation and to prevent and treat complications.Hence the investigator interested in assessing the effectiveness of aloveragel in thrombophlebitis patients in reducing pain, edema, and severity of inflammation. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: A study to assess the effectiveness of aloveragel in reducing pain, edema and severity of inflammation among thrombophlebitis patients in selected hospitals at Kanyakumari District May 2010. OBJECTIVES To assess the pretest level of pain, edema and severity of inflammation for the experimental and control group. To assess the post test level of pain, edema and severity of inflammation in experimental and control group. To compare the pre test level of thrombophlebitis between experimental and control group. To compare the posttest level of thrombophlebitis between the experimental and control group. To compare the pre and post test level of thrombophlebitis for both the experimental group. To compare the pre and post test level of thrombophlebitis for both the control group. To associate the post test level of thrombophlebitis of the experimental and ontrol group with their selected demographic variables. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Assess Systematically and collecting, validating and communicating the patient data. Effectiveness: In this study effectiveness means reduction of pain and edema and severity of inflammation of thrombophlebitis patients after the administration of aloveragel. Pain Refers the discomfort and irritability felt by the patient intravenous infusion site due to inflammation of vein and it is assessed by numerical pain scale. Edema Refers to the swelling in the infusion site and assessed by edema scale. Phlebitis: Refers to the redness which is occurred due to the intravenous infusion and is assessed by phlebitis scale. Aloeveagel: Refers to green leaves when it is teared which contain semi solid liquid and is applied in affected site. ASSUMPTION Pain,edema and severity of inflammation among thrombophlebitis can be reduced in adults by applying Aloveragel. Patient with thrombophlebitis at intravenous infusion site have pain , edema and inflammation . HYPOTHESIS RH1 There is a significant difference in pre test level of pain, edema and severity of inflammation between experimental and control group. RH2 There is a significant difference in post test level of pain, edema and severity of inflammation between experimental and control group. RH3 There is a significant difference in pre and post test level of pain, edema and severity inflammation among thrombophlebitis patients in experimental group. RH4 There is a significant difference in pre and post test level of pain, edema and severity of inflammation among thrombophlebitis patients for control group. RH5 There is a significant association of post test level of pain, edema and severity of inflammation among thrombophlebitis patients with their selected demographic variables (age, sex, site,duration etc). DELIMITATION The study is delimited for 4 weeks of data collection. The study is limited to a sample of 60 adults. CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK Conceptual model presents certain views of phenomena in the world that have profound influences on our perception of that world. A model is a simplification of reality or representation of reality. Concepts in the model builds consider relevant and as aids to understanding. The study is mainly focused to find out the effectiveness of aloeveragel in reducing pain,edema and severity of inflammation among thrombophlebitis patients. In order to reduce pain,edema and severity of inflammation aloveragel was applied. The investigator adopted the Kings Goal Attainment theory (1980) as a base for developing the conceptual framework. Imogene Kings Goal attainment theory is based on the personnel and interpersonal systems, including interaction, perception, communication, transaction, role, stress, growth and development, time and action. PERCEPTION: Refers to person representation of reality. It is universal yet highly subjective and unique to each person. Hence the investigator perception was peoples may have pain,edema and severity of inflammation JUDGEMENT: The investigator judged that application of aloeveragel reduces pain,edemaand severity of inflammation thrombophlebitis patients. The investigator to judge the need to reduce the level of pain,edema and severity of inflammation. ACTION: The investigator applied aloeveragel. The thrombophlebitis patient willingness to accept aloeveaagel and participate in the study. REACTION: The investigator and to asset mutual goal setting. INTERACTION: Refers to verbal and non verbal behavior of individual and the environment or two or more individual with a purpose to achieve goal. It includes the goal directed perception and communication. Here the investigator interacts with the thrombophlebitis patient by giving aloeveragel applied 3 times per day. TRANSACTION: Refers to an observable, purposeful behavior of individual interaction with their environment to achieve the desired goal. At this stage the investigator analysis the pain,edema and severity of inflammation among thrombophlebitis patients in order to administer aloeveragel application.The positive outcome in post test is the reduction of pain,edema and severity of inflammation which indicate the aloeveragel application. OUT LINE OF THE REPORT The report is divided into 6 Chapters: Chapter I dealt with background of the study, need for the study, statement of the problem, objectives, operational definitions, research hypotheses, assumptions, delimitations of the study, conceptual framework and outline of the report. Chapter II relates with review of related literature pertaining to various areas of study. Chapter III contains with the research design, variables, setting of the study, population, sample, sample size, sampling technique, criteria for sample selection, development and description of the tool, content validity, reliability of the tool, pilot study, procedure for data collection and analysis of the study. Chapter IV presents the data analysis and interpretation of data Chapter V relates with discussion based on the findings of the study. Chapter VI includes summary, conclusions, nursing implications, limitations and recommendations of the study. The report ends with bibliography and appendices.